William Bradfords personality

William Bradford was born to an influential and wealthy English family in 1590. In his childhood, Bradford had to endure the loss of several of his close family members. His father died when he was barely a year old and his mother died when he was seven years of age. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on William Bradford’s personality specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is claimed that his lack of close family bonds may have led to the development of his determined personality later in life. For example, his joining the nonconformist religious group, which would later be referred to as the Pilgrims, may have resulted from this. Throughout his life, Bradford exhibited a resolute personality in what he believed in. Since both his parents had passed away, Bradford went to stay with his uncles who had the intention of him helping them on their farm. However, because of his sickness he was unable to work and turned to reading spiritual books. This also played a critical role in the development of his intellectual inquisitiveness and his ultimate liking of the Separatist congregation. When Bradford was twelve years old, a friend introduced him to a separatist congregation who believed that the Church of England needed strict reforms so as to do away with every vestige practice of the Catholic church. Consequently, in search of religious freedom, the group, together with Bradford, relocated to Holland in August 1608 (Doherty, 26). After living there for about eleven years, the Separatists, with the assistance of Bradford, planned for the Mayflower’s voyage to America in 1620. In order to restructure the movement into a political body, he assisted in the formulation of the Mayflower Compact en route to the New World. Upon arrival, he assisted in choosing the best site for the establishment of the colony. One year after arrival, he was unanimously given the responsibility of serving as th e colony’s governor (Bradford and Davis, 10). He held that position for thirty years between 1621 and 1656. â€Å"His remarkable tact, honesty, and political ability proved indispensable in assuring the colony’s survival, and he helped avert numerous potential disasters. He was instrumental in establishing and fostering the principles of self-government and religious freedom that characterized later American colonial government† (â€Å"Mayflower Compact,† para. 2). The success he had in the leadership position was largely due to his resolute personality.Advertising Looking for essay on biography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Even though Bradford did not have adequate training in formal education, he had a native literary capability that made him write a number of books. His most renowned literary work is Of Plymouth Plantation, which was an elaborate description in manuscript form of the events that took place in the early years of the establishment of the Colony. The book was published in 1865, two hundred years after his death. Received well by his contemporaries, the book demonstrates his determined confidence in the Pilgrim Mission (Bradford and Morison, 3). Besides this, he also wrote poems, which mostly criticized the self-interest of the new generation. Bradford’s Dialogues, written in the form of conversations between the old and the young people, are a dramatization of his thoughts concerning the differences between the old and the new generation. In conclusion, Bradford demonstrated a resolute personality throughout his life. He was part of the persecuted separatist congregation who fought for religious freedom. His position as one of the longest serving Plymouth governors was successful because of his unwavering character traits. In addition, his literary works also testify of this. Works Cited Bradford, William, and Davis, William T. Bradford’s history of Plymouth Plantation, 1606-1646. Chestnut Hill, Mass. :Elibron Classics, 2005. Print. Bradford, William, and Morison, Samuel E. Of Plymouth Plantation, 1620-1647. New York : Knopf, 2006. Print. Doherty, Kieran, William Bradford: rock of Plymouth. Brookfield, Conn. : Twenty-First Century Books, 1999. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on William Bradford’s personality specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"Mayflower Compact.† C-Span. American Writers. 2010. Web. This essay on William Bradford’s personality was written and submitted by user Carmelo Y. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

What Is a Point Guard Basketball’s Team Leader

What Is a Point Guard Basketball’s Team Leader SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Love watching Steph Curry hit three-pointers? Or seeing Lindsay Whalen dribble down the court? What exactly do these point guards do? What is a point guard in basketball, even? Well, every basketball team’s starting lineup is made up of five players (each team puts 5 people on the court): a center, small forward, power forward, shooting guard, and a point guard. Each of these players has unique skills that make them an asset on the court. What is a point guard’s specialty? A point guard’s expertise is typically ball handling and passing. What Is a Point Guard? Point guards in basketball are expected to be great at dribbling the ball and great at passing, so that they can create opportunities for their team to score. However, they need to be so much more than that. They’re team leaders; they’re the person the team turns to to lead them on offense. They need to have positive attitudes because they’re the person their teammates turn to for support; they need to keep morale high. The chart below shows the five players positioned on offense, so you can see how the point guard fits in with the rest of the team. The point guard is typically one of the shorter players on the team (simply because this position doesn’t require height like some of the others). However, point guards are also usually the fastest players on the team because they control their team’s offense. Point Guard Offensive Responsibilities What exactly does the point guard need to do on offense in basketball? You have to master these six key responsibilities to be a top point guard. #1: Bringing Up the Ball The point guard (labeled number 1 above) is traditionally responsible for bringing up the ball from the other side of the court. This means after the other team scores, the point guard dribbles the ball (bounces the ball back and forth on the ground) back to your side of the court. The point guard then usually stands near the top of the key (the point shown in the diagram above) and figures out what play to make. #2: Controlling the Pace Because point guards bring up the ball, they end up setting the pace for the offense. If they bring up the ball slowly, walking while dribbling, they’ll slow down the offense. This can be good if the team needs a breather or if the other team’s offense is moving very fast, it helps reset the pace of the game. If they bring up the ball quickly, running while dribbling, they’ll speed up their offense. They might do this to try to catch the other team off guard. #3: Calling Plays After bringing up the ball, they may also call for the team to run a specific play. They may literally call it out loud by shouting something â€Å"James 45,† or they might make some sort of hand motion to signal for a play (such as putting their fist in the air). Think of them as the team organizer, like the quarterback in football. They start with the ball and then try to organize the team to get the ball to the basket. #4: Passing As I said, the point guard is an expert passer in basketball. As a point guard, you need to be good at passing the ball because once you dribble the ball to your side of the court, you’ll need to pass the ball to your fellow teammates to create opportunities to score. You’ll never see a point guard who can’t pass well. It’s arguably their most crucial skill. #5: Outside Shooting The point guard needs to be able to make shots from far away from the basket. While some players, such as the center and forwards, play close to the basket, the point guard generally stays around the 3-point line or just inside, so they need to be able to shoot from farther away. #6: Driving to the Basket While you’ll primarily see point guards pass or shoot from the outside, you’ll sometimes see top point guards dribble past the defense down to the basket to shoot layups (a shot from right next to the basket). A great point guard has the skills to fake out the defensive players, get around them, and score. Point Guard Defensive Responsibilities The best point guards won’t just be strong on offensive but on defense as well. The point guard’s role on defense will depend on what kind of defense the team plays. In basketball, there are two main types of defense: man-to-man and zone. You’ll more typically see man-to-man play in the NBA (or some sort of hybrid of the two). In man-to-man defense, each player is assigned another player on the other team to guard. They are responsible for guarding that player the entire game. In that scenario, the point guard will likely be matched with the other team’s point guard. They’ll try to stop the other team’s point guard from shooting or dribbling closer to the basket. In zone defense, each player is assigned an area of the court to guard, and they need to make sure to guard any opposing team player in their zone. In that case, the point guard typically guards the top of the key. They make sure no one is able to shoot a basket from the top of the key. Summary: What Does a Point Guard Do in Basketball? A point guard is one of the 5 positions on a basketball team. Point guards are the team organizers like quarterbacks in basketball. On offense, they need to be great at dribbling, to bring the ball to their side of the court. They need to be great passers, so they can give the balls to their teammates to create scoring opportunities. They need to be great at shooting from around the 3-point line. The best point guards will also be able to sneak around defense players and make layups. On defense, point guards are responsible for making sure the opposing team players don’t get shots off near the top of the key.

1. Research the term children as zones of peace. 2. Research a recent Essay

1. Research the term children as zones of peace. 2. Research a recent example of environmental refugees - Essay Example ram revolve around vaccination analysis and illness regulation; however, after years of development, other projects such as post-violence regulation and national intervention are now inclusive. Nonetheless, CZOP faces many challenges based on the origins of conflict such as political backgrounds and logistics. Decisively, for the Children as a Zone for Peace to be effectual at a particular region, they aim at creating a partnership with the authority or prominent stakeholders for easy execution; moreover, they have negotiation strategies for places where the children still face violence. Secondly, the CZOP also deals in resource control, development and circulation; largely, for all of their initiatives to succeed communication is a core aspect with the children and other involved parties (WHO 1). Last year, the leaders of CZOP introduced a new initiative that bases on incorporating children issues in political campaigns and states’ constitutions; however, this is just a small part of its development. In 2014, CZOP announced its partnership with multiple non-governmental organizations that also focus on campaigning about child health and welfare both on national and international levels. Environmental refugees are the people displaced after natural calamities occur i.e. earthquakes or the drastic rise of sea levels that destroys people’s homes and generally everything near these places. The disasters leave these people without shelter, food or any of the important necessities forcing them to migrate or look for other means of survival (Mante 1). However, there are temporary and permanent environmental refugees depending on the depth or impact of the disaster i.e. earthquakes or forests fires sweep away everything hence the people affected are permanent environmental refugees but calamities such as drought make the victims temporary environment refugees since there are possibilities of going back. There are the popular calamities that left millions of people

Significant person Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Significant person - Essay Example The size of his feet and hands is normal, not too big or too small. His head is square shaped with a notably short neck and narrow shoulders. He has a birth mark of two black dots on the other shoulder with two hairs and we use to call them cockroaches and he enjoys it. His sense of hearing is exceptionally good and his voice is loud when he talks. His voice also vibrates when he laughs and he is always smelling cigarettes in his breath when you are closer to him. He likes to use gestures when speaking like nodding the head when emphasising a point. He keeps a moustache which makes her facial expression look fun. My father is 59 years old and is an ambassador and I mostly admire him for his great achievements in life. He finished his high school in Qatar and obtained a diploma in Lebanon. He went on to obtain a Masters Degree in San Diego, CA. He is married and has six children of which four are boys and two are girls. We are originally from Qatar but we are living here because of his ambassadorial post. His position gives him status in the society though I am not very familiar with his

Bonds Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bonds - Article Example As the matter of fact, bonds are viewed as the most secure form of investment though with a relatively low rate of return. In the light of recent crisis, investors became more risk-averse and reliant on these long-term financial instruments though not completely protected from the risk as interest rates are still subject to change. Bond is a long-term financial instrument that is mainly traded by large corporations and a government (Class PPT, 2009)1 for the purpose of raising money (Investopedia, 2009).2 Bonds are also issued by governments in order to provide secure long-term investments of individuals in such institutions as pension funds (Ming, 2009). A borrower (issuer) is obliged to pay principal and interest on a predetermined date (maturity) to an investor (bond holder) (Class PPT, 2009). In contrast to other financial instruments, bond's rate of return is lower due to lower perceived risk of default. However, in case of such an incident, investors still get lower return (Class PPT, 2009). That fact always makes investors cautious in choosing a reliable institution for investment. Moreover, the crisis emanated in March of 2007 made the current financial situation rather volatile and unpredictable. The situation discouraged business lending and stimulated the purchases of governmental Treasury notes (Hi lsenrath, 2009). Current financial situation stimulated investors' demand for greater security of their capital.

Female Artistic Gymnasts Caloric And Nutrient Intake

Female Artistic Gymnasts Caloric And Nutrient Intake Proper caloric and macro and micro nutrients intake has a significant influence in athletic performance among female artistic gymnasts (Applegate, 2001). Appropriate nutrition is an important portion of a female artistic gymnasts training program because it provides the energy required by the body for optimizing performance during practice sessions and competitions (Achten et al., 2004). Following an adequate diet during the years gymnasts are engaged in extraneous exercise routines contributes for maintaining a healthy life after their athletic careers, delaying the effects of aging (Beals, 2002). Also, a balanced diet improves the immune system and enhances a persons ability to concentrate (Applegate, 2001). Although appropriate diet is extremely important for athletes, female artistic gymnasts are a group predominantly predisposed for engaging in unhealthy eating behaviors for weight management purposes (Benson Gillie, 2001). In addition to the typical social pressure placed on females in general to be thin seen in the Western culture, these athletes are part of an environment that focuses on their bodies appearance (Nutter, 2000). Factors such as pressure from coaches, comparison with teammates, performance demands, aesthetics concerns, and physique-revealing uniforms are positively related to an increase in weight control practices in the sport context that female artistic gymnasts are inserted in (Yoon, 2002). Also, different researchers support the idea that the sport setting may contribute to heighten anxiety related to maintain a perfect body image and promote pathogenic eating behaviors among female gymnasts (Beals, 2002; Soares Ribeiro, 2002). The most common weight control practices observed among female artistic gymnasts are fasting and extremely low calorie intake (Phillips, 2004). Other methods include self-induced vomiting and the use of diet pills, diuretics, and laxatives (Hassapidou Manstrantoni, 2001). Extremely low energy intake is associated with delayed puberty, growth problems, and amenorrhea, which has been shown to affect bone development among women (Beals, 2002). In spite of the unquestionable importance of a balanced diet in terms of energy requirements and macro and micro nutrients for female artistic gymnasts, various researchers have demonstrated that there is a substantial lack of information about sport nutrition among artistic gymnastic coaches and athletes (Ziegler, Jonnalagadda, Lawrence, 2001; Yoon, 2002). According to Beals (2002), it is not rare to find gymnasts with erroneous ideas about sport nutrition who engage in extremely low calorie diets in order to lose weight and modify their body composition and appearance (p.1934). The interest in analyzing the food intake of female artistic gymnasts is attributed to the fact that even with evidences proving the importance of proper nutrition for athletic performance, many gymnasts neglect following a balanced diet. Many times, inappropriate weight control methods are adopted because of the lack of information about sports nutrition and/or constant concern about reaching a specific body composition (Applegate, 2001). Therefore, an analysis of the eating habits of female artistic gymnasts should be conducted in order to determine if their diet contains the proper amounts of calories and macro and micro nutrients. 1.1 Statement of the Problem Appropriate nutrition is a key component on the athletic performance of female artistic gymnasts (Phillips, 2004). However, many athletes tend to adopt inadequate weight control practices that end up compromising their diet as a result of the constant concern with body composition and image (Burke, Gollan, Read, 2001). Therefore, the goal of this paper is to answer the following question: On average, do females artistic gymnasts have a proper caloric and macro and micro nutrient intake based on their nutritional needs? CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Artistic Gymnastics According to the International Federation of Gymnastics, artistic gymnastics, also known as Olympic gymnastics is a sport in which athletes perform a set of exercises in different events. The movements of the gymnasts must be elegant and demonstrate strength, agility, flexibility, coordination, balance and control of the body. The events present in womens artistic gymnastics are vault, uneven bars, balance beams, and floor. In 1881 the International Gymnastics Federation was founded and womens artistic gymnastics entered the Olympics as a team event in 1928. After that, the participation of womens teams in international gymnastics competitions gradually increased. 2.2 Body Composition Body composition measurements are used to describe fat, bone, and muscle percentages in the human body (Berger Shenkin, 2006). It is basically measured in terms of body fat percentage, which can influence athletic performance during competitions and training sessions (Applegate, 2001). Athletic performance in gymnastic is, to a large extent, dependent on the athletes ability to sustain power (both anaerobically and aerobically) and to overcome resistance. Both of these factors are interrelated with the athletes body composition (Burke et al., 2001). Gymnasts with a higher body fat percentage than the desirable may be more prone to injury when performing difficult skills than athletes with a more optimal body composition. Also, excessive body fat can reduce speed and increase the metabolic cost of an action (Nieman et al, 2001). A high lean body mass, which is the sum of the nonfat parts of the human body like muscle, organs, blood and water, may aid athletic performance by improving the strength-to-weight ratio. A higher percentage of lean mass facilitate power production (Jonnalagadda, Nelson, Lawrence, Bacick, 2002). A low body fat content also helps performance by lowering the resistance because the smaller the body profile, the less resistance the body is likely to produce. For example, a gymnast who weighs 110 pounds (50 kilograms) and is 5 feet (152 centimeters) tall with a body fat percentage of 15 percent will have a lower air resistance tumbling through the air than a gymnast with the same weight and height but with a body fat percentage of 20 percent (Burke et al., 2001). However, many gymnasts when attempting to achieve an optimal body composition use counterproductive methods (Economos, Bortz, Nelson, 2003). Diets and excessive training often result in such a severe energy deficit that, although total body mass may be reduced, the constituents of weight also change, commonly with a lower muscle and a relatively higher fat percentage (Singh, Evans, Gallagher, Deuster, 2003). The resulting higher body fat and lower muscle mass is associated with performance reduction that motivates the athlete to follow regimens that produce even greater energy deficits, which can place gymnasts at serious health risk (Nutter, 2000). 2.3 Macronutrients There are two types of essential nutrients, macronutrients and micronutrients.   Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are the three types of macronutrients (Burke et al., 2001). Macronutrients are the substrates required to maintain the different energy systems responsible for energy production in the body. Each macronutrient produces distinct amounts of energy and plays a unique role during extraneous physical activity (Baechle Earle, 2008). In general, in a balanced diet 55-75% of the total energy comes from carbohydrates, 12-15 % from proteins and 25-30 % from lipids (p.74). A diet should be adjusted to the specific needs of each gymnast. Many aspects should be considered when prescribing a diet to an athlete, such as weight, height, sex, body fat percentage, age, metabolism and the type, frequency, intensity, and duration of training (Nutter, 2000). 2.3.1 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy for athletes because they provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for muscle contractions (Baechle Earle, 2008). Once ingested, carbohydrates are broken down into smaller sugars, such as glucose, that are absorbed by the body and utilized as energy (p.76). Glucose molecules that are not immediately needed, get stored in the muscles and liver in the form of glycogen. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose (Phillips, 2004). In the liver cells, glycogen can compose up to 8% of the fresh weight (100-120  g in an adult) soon after a meal. Only the glycogen stored in the liver can be made accessible to other organs. In the muscle, glycogen is found in a much lower concentration (1% to 2% of the muscle mass), but the total amount exceeds that in the liver (Baerchle Earle, 2008). Since ATP and muscle glycogen are immediately accessible in the muscle, they are the main fuels utilized for short and intense bouts of exercise, such as the ones performed by gymnasts (p.90). A short duration and high intensity exercise period is classified as an anaerobic, which utilizes primarily anaerobic pathways for energy production (without oxygen). There are two types of anaerobic energy systems: ATP and creatine phosphate (phosphagen) system and anaerobic glycolysis (p.80). Creatine phosphate molecules, which quickly re-synthesize ATP in the muscle cells, are stored in very limited quantities (Ziegler et al., 2001). So, the phosphagen energy system can only provide fuel for the muscle for approximately thirty seconds. After that, energy will be primarily produced by the anaerobic glycolysis process (Singh et al., 2003). Anaerobic glycolysis exclusively uses glucose as a fuel in the absence of oxygen or more specifically, when ATP is needed at rates that exceed those provide d by aerobic metabolism (energy production with oxygen). The result of rapid glucose breakdown is the formation of lactate (Baerchle Earle, 2008). According to Singh et al (2003), glycogen has four main purposes in the body: functioning as a source of energy for muscles, sparing protein consumption, working as metabolic activator, and providing fuel for the brain (p.329). Muscular glycogen depletion leads to lower levels of blood glucose and liver glycogen (Singh et al., 2003). During prolonged physical activity, insulin secretion from the pancreas decreases, while glucagon and catecholamine concentrations in the blood increase. Catecholamine are hormones (adrenaline, noradrenalide and dopamine) released by the adrenal gland. Together with glucagon they stimulate the breakdown of liver glycogen, a process called glycogenolysis (Achten et al, 2004). When glycogen storages reach a very low level, energy is originated from gluconeogenesis, an energy production process in which amino acids, lactate, and glycerol are converted into ATP for muscle contraction (Baechle Earle, 2008). This process becomes an important source of energy during periods of prolonged exercise and low carbohydrate intake. In extreme condition, gluconeogenesis can cause a significant reduction in the lean body mass, which is associated with higher production of nitrogenous wastes (bi-products of protein breakdown) (Jonnalagadda et al., 2002). One way of classifying carbohydrates is based on the glycemic index (GI), which is a measure of the effect of a carbohydrate rich food on blood glucose levels relative to glucose. Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion, releasing glucose rapidly into the bloodstream, have a high GI; carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, have a low GI (Singh et al, 2003). A lower glycemic response is associated to a smaller insulin demand. Glucose and white bread are used as reference foods and have a glycemic index of 100. The glycemic index is determined by measuring the postprandial glycemia (glucose levels after a meal) for a time interval of two hours after the ingestion of 50g of a specific food (Berger Shenkin). A glucose response curve is plotted depicting the relationship between blood glucose elevation and time. The area of the curve above the fasting level is measured and divided by the area of the curve of the sta ndard food (either glucose or white bread) and multiplied by 100 (Jonnalagadda, 2002). Up to two hours prior exercise, a meal that is rich in carbohydrates of low (milk and vegetables) or moderate GI (fruits) is preferred instead of one with a high GI. Foods with low to moderate GI will maintain the energy level balanced and avoid energy peaks by keeping the blood glucose and insulin levels low (Burke et al., 2001). In addition, these foods tend to be lower in fat and contain more vitamins, minerals and fiber than the ones with a high GI. Also, low to moderate IG foods promote glycogen storages, which will consequently improve performance during competition or practice session (Benson Gillie, 2001). Carbohydrate intake after physical activity is extremely important because it will replenish glycogen storages used during exercise (Burke et al, 2001). Also, after physical activity cells become more sensitivity to insulin, increasing glucose uptake by the tissues. After physical activity, muscle and liver glycogen is completely replenished in 24 hours. Therefore, adequate carbohydrate intake is extremely important for athletes (Nutter, 2000). According to Economos et al. (2003), 50 to 55% of the total caloric intake should come from carbohydrates. Other authors believe that the carbohydrate percentage in the diet of artistic gymnasts should vary from 55 to 75% of the total calories (p. 388). The American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends a daily intake of 150 to 175 grams of carbohydrate for each 1000 calories consumed (Yoon ,2002). Lastly, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) suggests that more than 55% of the total calories should be in the form of carbohydrates (Be als, 2002). 2.3.2 Proteins Proteins are composed of one or more amino acids. A typical protein contains 200-300 amino acids but some are much smaller (the smallest are often called peptides) (Beals, 2002). More than 300 different types of amino acids are found in nature but only 20 exist in the human body. Among these 20 amino acids, eight are essential, which means that they cannot be synthesized by the body. The others are called non-essential amino acids, since they are produced by the organism (Phillips, 2004). When the body does not have enough carbohydrate, protein is broken down to produce glucose for energy (Baerchle Earle, 2008). Adequate carbohydrate intake helps prevent protein from being used as energy. Because the primary role of protein is to function as the building blocks for muscles, bone, skin, hair, and other tissues, relying on protein for energy (by failing to take in adequate carbohydrate) can limit the athletes ability to build and maintain tissues. Additionally, utilizing protein as an energy source stresses the kidneys because they have to work harder to eliminate the byproducts of protein breakdown (Soares Ribeiro, 2002). In the body, proteins play other important roles such as functioning as hormones, enzymes and neurotransmitters, participating in the process of energy production, and regulating several metabolic pathways important during physical activity. Amino acids also have a small participation in energy production during extenuating physical activities (Economos et al., 2003). Whereas carbohydrates provide more than 80% of the fuel utilized in the metabolic pathways, amino acids contribute for only 5 to 10% in physical activities of long duration (Jonnalagadda et al., 2002). The recommended protein intake for gymnasts is around 1.1 grams/kg of body weight or 12 to 15% of the total caloric intake (Burke et al., 2001). 2.3.3 Lipids The main lipids in the human body are triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and lipoproteins. Triglycerides, which are composed by one glycerol molecule and three molecules of fatty acids, are the most common lipids in the diet and are stored by the body (Nieman, 2001). During a prolonged exercise period, such as a long gymnastic practice, stored triglycerides in the adipose tissue are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by the enzyme lipase (Economos, 2003). Adrenaline and glucagon secreted in response to low levels of blood glucose stimulate the release of triglycerides from the adipose tissue. High levels of insulin and blood glucose have the opposite effect, since it is associated with the deposit of triglycerides in the adipose tissue (Singh et al, 2003). Glycerol is phosphorylated in the liver into glucose-6-fosfate, resulting in substrate for the formation of glucose (glyconeogenesis) (Baerchle Earle, 2008). The American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends that 30% of the total caloric intake should come from lipids. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) suggests a lipid intake of 25-30% of the total caloric intake. 2.4 Micronutrients Vitamins and minerals play an important role in regulating energetic pathways, contracting and building muscles, functioning as antioxidants, and participating in the immunologic system (Economos, 2003). 2.4.1 Minerals Minerals represent 4% of total body weight. The two most important minerals in the diet of athletes are iron and calcium because the body concentrations of these are more likely to be affected by intense training periods. Also, they play significant roles in athletic performance (Singh et al., 2003). Calcium plays an important role in muscle contraction. It is stored in the sarcoplasmatic reticulum of muscles and released when muscles fibers are stimulated, forming actine-miosine bridges and causing the muscle to contract (Yoon, 2002). Besides, according to Phillips (2004), there is a correlation between a poor diet in calcium and the occurrence of stress fractures. Low calcium levels in the diet of female athletes are also related to the incidence of earlier osteoporosis than in the average women after menopause (Nutter, 2000). Athletes should have a daily intake of calcium equal to 1.2 grams (Achten et al., 2004). Besides calcium, iron is also significant in the diet of athletes. Since iron is found in the hemoglobin and myoglobin, lack of this mineral directly affects oxygen transport in the blood and to muscles (Beals, 2002). Iron deficits in the body can cause anemia, condition in which hemoglobin is reduced in the blood and red blood cells become small and pale (Berger Shenkin, 2006). Common symptoms associated with iron-deficiency anemia are: slow recover after physical activity, irritability, tiredness, depression, insomnia, and consequently a decrease in athletic performance (Beals, 2002). For female athletes the recommended dietary intake of iron is 18mg/day (Baerchle Earle, 2008). 2.4.2 Vitamins Vitamins A, D, E, and K are denominated lipossoluble and vitamins B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), pantotenic acid, and vitamin C are called hydrosoluble (Willmore Costill, 2001). Vitamins from the B complex function as co-factors and coenzymes in reactions related to the energetic metabolism, such as glycosis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and beta oxidation of fatty acids (Singh et al., 2003). Vitamin C is important for iron absorption and plays an important role in the synthesis of collagen, carnitine, epinephrine, and serotonin (Yoon, 2002). Vitamin C, E, and beta-carotene (precursor of vitamin A) function as antioxidant, protecting the organism against infections and preventing any harm that free radicals (toxic substances released during physical activity) may cause to tendons and ligaments (Nutter, 2000). Therefore, a proper intake of beta-carotene and vitamin C and E are important in the diet of athletes, since they will help in the elimination of free radicals. Lack of vitamin C may cause muscular weakness, decrease lipid breakdown, and increase occurrence of injuries (Applegate, 2001). Restrictions in energy and nutrient intake in the diet of gymnasts may cause lack of vitamins in the body (Mullinix, Jonnalagadda, Rosenbloom, Thompson, Kicklighter, 2003). 2.5 Caloric Intake Energetic expenditure is determined by the thermic effects of food (5-10%), basal metabolic rate (60-65%) and intensity, duration, and frequency of physical activity (25-35%). The thermic effect of food is the energy required to process and store nutrients for use. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy spent by the body at rest to maintain in the vital organs functioning. A low body fat percentage and a high muscle mass increase BMR (Baerchle Earle, 2008). Female artistic gymnasts should have a caloric intake adequated to their energy expenditure in order to maximize proper performance, body composition, and health (Phillips, 2004). A low energy intake or an inadequate diet in terms of macro and micro nutrients may result in improper intake of important nutrients for the energetic metabolism and muscle tissue regeneration (Ziegler et al., 2001). Female artistic gymnasts usually practice for long periods (5 to 6 hours a day), which results in high energy expenditure, so they should have a caloric intake of 40-45 kilocalories/kilogram of body weight (Economos et al., 2003). Excessive concern with body image and weight control may affect caloric intake among female artistic gymnasts (Ziegler et al., 2001). Inadequate energetic consumption and eating disorders are frequently seen among athletes who participate in sports in which performance is associate to low body weight, such as ice skating and gymnastics (Ziegler et al, 2001; Yoon, 2002). Soares Ribeiro (2002) reported that 75% of gymnasts who have been told to be overweight from their coaches adopted strong measures in order to loose weight. Therefore, coaches play important roles in avoiding extreme weight control measures and consequently excessive low calorie diets among gymnasts. Also, female artistic gymnasts should consult with sports dietitian in order to minimize this type of problem (Hassapidou Manstrantoni, 2001). 2.6 Eating Behavior: Benson and Gillie (2001) evaluated the eating habits of 32 female artistic gymnasts (20 to 24 years old) from six different gymnastics schools in Canada based on their food intake of three distinct days in which they had normal practice schedules. The average caloric intake (1,838 calories (kcal)/day) was relatively low compared with the energetic recommendation for female artistic gymnasts. Besides, 40% of the athletes had diets that were low in calcium, folic acid, vitamin E, and pyridoxine and 53% showed a low iron intake. On average, the diet of athletes was constitued of 15% of proteins, 36% of lipids, and 49% of carbohydrates (p.83). Mullinix et al. (2003) analyzed the dietary intake of 13 members of two different collegiate womens artistic gymnastic teams (19 to 25 years old) based on the dietary intake of six days collected during 2 weeks. The average caloric intake was equal to 1,845kcal/day and athletes presented a lower caloric intake inferior to the recommendation, like the previous study. Fifty-five percent of athletes consumed less than 50% of the recommended intake for pyridoxine, folic acid, calcium, and iron (p.590). Yoon (2002) also studied the eating habits of ten collegiate athletes using the food intake and activity level of three days. It was estimated on average the daily energy expenditure was 2,855kcal/day. However, the caloric intake was, on average, only 1,357kcal/day, representing a deficit of 1,498 calories per day. More than 50% of the gymnasts had a low intake of calcium, iron, and vitamin A (p.1553) In a study conducted by Ziegler et al. (2001), twenty American gymnasts (22 years old on average) recorded their food intake during three days in which they had training. After analysis, it was possible to conclude that, on average, there was a lack of vitamins A, D, folic acid, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc. One fourth of the athletes were taking vitamin supplements. The average caloric intake was equal to 1,771kcal/day (56g of proteins, 75g of lipids, and 218g of carbohydrates) (p.106). In a study conducted by Soares and Ribeiro (2002), the food intake of 20 Brazilian gymasts was evaluated (18-20 years old). In order to analyze the eating behavior of athletes, the authors recorded their food intake for three days and asked participants to do a 24 hour food recall. The average caloric intake was equal to 1,521kcal/day. The carbohydrate content in their diet ranged from 50% to 58% and the protein intake from 15% to 19%. On average, there was a deficit of calcium (45% below the recommendation), magnesium, iron, and zinc (p.350). Hassapidou Manstrantoni (2001) compared chances in the diet of 25 Greek female artistic gymnastics between competitive and non-competitive stages of training. Authors reported that there was no variation in the diet among these two different periods. In both stages, there was a negative energy balance in the diet of 68% of athletes, which was below the recommended caloric intake for gymnasts. Protein intake and micronutrient intakes were, on average, within the recommendation for athletes. Adequate micronutrient intake was attributed to the high consumption of vegetables and fruits, which is a characteristic of the Mediterranean diet (p.395). 3. CONCLUSION In order to achieve a good performance, female artistic gymnasts should adopt a balanced and adequate diet. Athletes should have a varied diet that provides them with proper caloric and macro and micronutrients intake. Factors, such as pressure from coaches to keep a perfect body composition lead many gymnasts to adopt inappropriate weight control methods. In the last decade, eating behavior of gymnasts has caught the attention of many researchers in the field of sports nutrition and exercise science. Recent studies have indicated a constant anxiety related to weight control among many gymnasts, which frequently results in inappropriate eating habits and extremely low calorie diets compared to the recommendations. The studies presented showed that, on average, gymnasts follow low calorie diets, which are below the recommended caloric intake and do not provide athletes with the proper amounts of macronutrients. Besides, also according to the studies there appears to be a low mineral and vitamin intake in the athletes diet. As a result, performance is very likely to be compromised since appropriate nutrition is essential for optimal functioning of the body and health. The only exception was the study conducted by Hassapidou Manstrantoni (2001), in which Greek gymnasts had an adequate intake of micronutrients. This can be attributed to the fact that athletes were probably eating according to the Mediterranean diet, which is rich in fruits and vegetables. In conclusion, the analysis of the studies showed that, on average, the eating behavior of female artistic gymnasts does not follow the nutritional recommendations and adequate intake of calories and macro and micro nutrients. For future studies, in order to improve their eating behavior and mindset about body image, the food intake of athletes should be evaluated after exposure to psychological counseling and nutritional reeducation for a reasonable period of time.

The Death Penalty;Does It Deter Crime :: essays research papers

Does the Death Penalty Deter Crime? Scientific studies have consistently failed to find convincing evidence that the death penalty deters crime more effectively than other punishments. The most recent survey of research findings on the relation between the death penalty and homicide rates, conducted for the United Nations in 1988 and updated in 1996, concluded: "Research has failed to provide scientific proof that executions have a greater deterrent effect than life imprisonment and such proof is unlikely to be forthcoming. The evidence as a whole still gives no positive support to the deterrent hypothesis..." (Reference: Roger Hood, The Death Penalty: A World-wide Perspective, Oxford, Clarendon Press, revised edition, 1996, p. 238, paragraph 328) w.web.amnesty.org The death penalty has never deterred crime. When the death penalty was reinstated in the 1970’s crime rates were sky high. In research conducted for the United Nations in 1996, crime rates were the same as those in the 70’s. Depending on the exact year since the death penalty was reinstated in the U.S. crime rates have dipped or risen 10-15%. Normally the ladder. In the United Sates we call the death penalty, capital punishment. The word capital speaks of the head. This is because throughout history the most common way of executing criminals was by severing the head. Now when I hear capital punishment I will be reminded of something even more grotesque and morbid than previously. In a survey taken by prisoners serving life terms, 55-60% said that they would have rather received the death penalty than life terms. www.religioustolerance.org/execute.htm It seems to me that, since more prisoners would prefer to be killed, it is a lesser form of punishment. However that by no means makes this cruel and degrading form of punishment acceptable. We are denying the right of life. Regardless of the fact that those on death row did take that right away from another human being, it is not our place to take theirs.

12 Angry Men Prejudice Essay Essay

What is Justice? Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics; rationality, law, religion or fairness, as well as taking into account the inborn rights of all human beings and citizens, the right of all people and individuals to equal protection before the law of their civil rights, without discrimination. Justice is one of the great concerns of humankind. It is something for which people over centuries have been willing to struggle and even die. Examples of Justice are novels 12 Angry Men and The Green Mile. 2 Angry Men is a novel written by Reginald Rose in 1955. The story takes place in 1957 in the jury-room of a New York Court of Law. It is about a young delinquent who is on trial for the murder of his aggressive farther. Eleven jurors are directed by the judge to gather on a hot afternoon to declare if there is any reasonable doubt as to why the boy is not guilty. One, even though far from convinced of the boy’s innocence, feels that some of the evidence against him is ambiguous. By the end of the day that juror has reversed opinions of all eleven jurors. Prejudice: There are many significant views and values that Reginald Rose demonstrates in 12 Angry Men the most important one being that prejudice constantly affects the truth and peoples judgement. As the jurors argue between themselves as to whether a young boy is guilty of stabbing his father it is shown that â€Å"It’s very hard to keep personal prejudice out of a thing like this. † This is most evident in the way juror #3 and juror #10 come to their decision that the young man is guilty as they bring in there prejudice against young people and people from the slums to make their judgement without considering the facts of the case. Rose uses juror #8 who can see the whole trial because he is calm, reasonable and brings no prejudice as a prime example of what a juror is supposed to be like. Juror #10 is the character who brings in the most prejudice to the jury room as he has formed his decision from the moment he saw the young boy and sees no reason for him to waste any time debating on whether the defendant is guilty. His prejudice comes from the fact he used to live in the â€Å"slums† and consider people like the defendant to be trash. This is established when he states â€Å"you can’t believe a word they say†¦they act different†¦ they don’t need any big excuse to kill someone. † Juror #10 never really considers the facts of the case only using them as a pretext to vote guilty and to leave early. When he found it too difficult to change people’s opinions he simply gave up and voted not guilty. â€Å"I couldn’t care less†. This shows just how little he cared for the defendant’s life and the jury system unlike juror #3 who deeply cared about the jury system and the case.

Conflicts with Native Americans essays

Conflicts with Native Americans essays In the 1830s the United States was beginning to expand west of the Mississippi. There was, however, usable land east of the River. It was inhabited by the Native Americans and it was very valuable. In 1830 and act called the Indian Removal Act was passed. It allowed the federal government to remove the Native Americans from their lands and relocate them to areas in and around present day Oklahoma. They would be paid to move. Many Native Americans agreed to the act, accepted compensation, and moved. Others, however, were very reluctant to leave their long-time homes. Some of those that did not want to move included the Cherokee, the Sauk and Fox, and the Seminole. The people of the Cherokee Nation refused to leave their homes. They argued that in the 1790s they had been recognized by the federal government as a nation of their own with their own laws. The Cherokee sued the Georgias government for refusing to recognize their importance as a nation. The case was eventually taken to the Supreme Court who ruled that the Native Americans were protected by the Constitution and the federal government. President Jackson, however, refused to honor the ruling. He supported the state of Georgia in the case. A few Cherokee signed a treaty in 1835. This treaty allowed the government to take their land. However, most of the Cherokee population of 17,000 refused to move. They wrote a letter to the government. It, however, did not soften the President. The letter read: We are aware that some persons suppose it will be for our advantage to move beyond the Mississippi...Our people universally think otherwise...We wish to remain on the land of our fathers. In 1838 7,000 troops, led by General Winfield Scott, were sent to remove the Cherokee from their lands. He threatened to use force to move them, Chiefs, head men, and warriors-Will you then, by resistance, compel ...

Avian Influenza Essay Example

Avian Influenza Essay Example Avian Influenza Paper Avian Influenza Paper Essay Topic: The Wild Duck Avian Influenza Introduction Bird flu in most cases begins with discomfort of lower respiratory ways and in unusual casesfrom upper respiratory air-ways. Elevated viral titer is isolated from pharynx but not from nose. Initial symptoms of the H5N1 influenza are: high grade fever, mild cold, cough and shortness of breath. Practically all patients develop viral pneumonia complicating to secondary bacterial infection, mild to severe respiratory distress, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Conjunctivitis is entity. Sometimes gastrointestinal disorder develops earlier than respiratory symptoms. Avian influenza viruses are shed in respiratory secretions and feces of birds. Infected ducks, for example, shed virus for at least 30 days. Influenza virus from the feces of waterfowl can be recovered from surface water. Avian species develop infection that ranges from asymptomatic to lethal. Avian influenza has caused major outbreaks in poultry farms.   Influenza virus can undergo genetic mutations in hemagglutinin or neuraminidase (antigens on the surface of the virus) that can lead to epidemics. Much less commonly, a completely new hemagglutinin or neuraminidase emerges- with the new genetic material coming from animals. This genetic shift typically leads to pandemics. Early chronology: 1929 Last evidence (serologic) of circulation in humans of a swine-like influenza virus 1930 Isolation of an influenza virus from swine 1933 First isolation of an influenza virus from humans Until 1995, only three of the 15 influenza hemagglutinins that had been identified were known to cause infections in humans. Birds have all 15 identified hemagglutinins and nine neuraminidases. New influenza viruses often emerge from southern China, a region characterized by a large, densely settled human population and abundant pigs and ducks living in close proximity to humans. Until events in Hong Kong in 1997, scientists thought that avian influenza posed no direct threat to humans. In 1997, after causing influenza outbreaks on chicken farms, avian influenza (H5N1) spread to humans (Claas et al. 1998). Eighteen human cases were confirmed, six of them fatal. Infection was concentrated in children and young adults, unlike the pattern in most outbreaks where morbidity and death are most common in older adults. The virus recovered from humans was identical to that found in birds (Subbarao et al. 1998). Epidemiological studies suggested that there had been multiple independent introductions of the influenza virus into the human population from birds, but that very limited person-to-person spread occurred. At the time of the human cases, there were estimated to be 300–600 live bird markets in Hong Kong, where mixing of different avian species (ducks, chickens, pheasants, pigeons, wild birds) was possible. When the Hong Kong live bird markets were studied , 10% or more of birds were found to be shedding H5N1, in multiple avian species (geese, chickens, ducks). The birds (more than one million) were killed, and no additional human cases of H5N1 have been documented. In 1999, human infection with H9N2, another avian influenza strain widespread in Asia, was also documented for the first time in humans, at a time of enhanced surveillance (Peiris et al. 1999). The events in Hong Kong have led to heightened global surveillance for influenza in humans and animals. There was reason to be concerned about the events in Hong Kong, a densely populated city with extensive links to the rest of the world. In 1993, there were an estimated 41.4 million passenger movements (boat, train, car, airplane) and from Hong Kong. The influenza viruses that afflict humans are divided into three types: A, B, and C. Influenza A is responsible for the epidemics and infects not only man but also pigs, horses, seals, and a large variety of birds. Indeed, influenza A has been isolated worldwide from both domestic and wild birds, primarily waterbirds including ducks, geese, terns, and gulls and domesticated birds such as turkeys, chickens, quail, pheasants, geese, and ducks. Studies of wild ducks in Canada from 1975 to 1994 indicated that up to 20 percent of the juveniles were infected, and fecal samples from their lakeshore habitats contained the virus. These birds usually shed the virus from five to seven days (with a maximum of thirty days) after becoming infected even though they show no sign of the disease. Obviously, this virus and its hosts have adapted mutually over many centuries and created a reservoir that ensures perpetuation of the virus. Duck virus has been implicated in outbreaks of influenza in animal s such as seals, whales, pigs, horses, and turkeys. Extensive analysis of the viruss genetic structure, or nucleic acid sequences, supports the hypotheses that mammalian influenza viruses, including those infecting man, may well originate in aquatic birds. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003) Subtypes of influenza A, the various strains of these avian viruses can be classified as either highly pathogenic or as of low pathogenicity, based on their genetic features and the severity of illness they cause in birds. There are currently 27 potential forms of the three subtypes of avian influenza viruses differentiated by variations in the neuraminidase surface antigen. Thus, H5, H7, and H9 avian influenza viruses, so named for their hemagglutinin surface antigen, can each be matched with nine possible neuraminidase surface antigens, N1, N2, N3, etc. Thus, there could be H5N1 through H5N9, H7N1 through H7N9, and H9N1 through H9N9 strains. H9 viruses appear to be of low pathogenicity, while H5 and H7 viruses can be highly pathogenic for birds. However, low pathogenic forms of these viruses seem to be the cause of most outbreaks among poultry causing only mild or imperceptible illness and low mortality rates. Nonetheless, both H5 and H7 can develop high levels of pathogenicity in which case mortality rates in poultry flocks can reach 100%. The natural history of avian influenza viruses is characterized by spread through infected nasal, respiratory and fecal material, and a reservoir state in healthy birds. (Pascal James Imperato, 2005) www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Pathogenesis The pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans has not been clearly explained. Apoptosis might also play a vital part. Apoptosis has been observed in alveolar epithelial cells, which is the major target cell type for the viral replication. Many apoptotic leukocytes were observed in the lungs of patients who died on day 6 of illness. Apoptosis may play a major role in the pathogenesis of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans by destroying alveolar epithelial cells. This pathogenesis causes pneumonia and destroys leukocytes, leading to leucopenia, which is an outstanding clinical feature of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans. Whether observed apoptotic cells were a directly related to viral replication or outcome of an over activation of the immune system needs further studies. (Uiprasertkul M, 2007) www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm Infected birds were the major source of the H5N1 influenza virus among humans in Asia. Mainly humans became infected by eating infected birds, by poor hygiene procedures when cooking infected birds, or by close contact with infected poultry. (Reina J, 2002). Certain birds, particularly water birds, act as hosts for influenza viruses by carrying the virus in their intestines and shedding it. Infected birds shed virus in saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Susceptible birds can become infected with avian influenza virus when they have contact with contaminated nasal, respiratory, or fecal material from infected birds. Fecal-to-oral transmission is the most common mode of spread among birds. Most often, the wild birds that are the hosts for the virus do not get sick, but they can spread influenza to other birds. (CDC, 2006) www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm At present spread of the H5N1 influenza from human to human by air born route has not been registered, but enduring monitoring for identification mutation and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus to human is needed. Most studies performed in avian viral strains elucidates that virulence is a polygenic phenomenon. However, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase and the genes codifying these substances (genes 4 and 6) play a vital role in viral pathogenesis. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007). Avian strains can be classified as virulent or avirulent according to the capability of hemagglutinin to be triggered by endoproteases of the respiratory tract merely or by proteases from other tissues. This ability is based on the ever going mutations that lead to the substitution of the normal amino acids at the point of hemagglutinin hydrolysis by the other basic amino acids that determine the amplifi cation of the spectrum of hydrolysis and activation. Neuraminidase contributes in the acquisition of virulence through its ability to attach to plasminogen and by escalating the concentration of activating proteases. Adaptation to the host, by recognition of the cell receptor, is an additional factor determining the virulence and interspecies spread of avian strains. (Reina J, 2002) Transmission to mammals Influenza A viruses from aquatic birds grow poorly in human cells, and vice versa. However, both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs. We have known that pigs are susceptible to influenza viruses that infect man ever since the veterinarian J. S. Koen first observed pigs with influenza symptoms closely resembling those of humans. Retrospective tests of human blood indicate that the swine virus isolated by Shope in 1928 was similar to the human virus and likely responsible for the human epidemic. Swine influenza still persists year-round and is the cause of most respiratory diseases in pigs. Interestingly, in 1976, swine influenza virus isolated from military recruits at Fort Dix was indistinguishable from virus isolates obtained from a man and a pig on a farm in Wisconsin. The examiners concluded that animals, especially aquatic birds and pigs, can be reservoirs of influenza virus. When such viruses or their components mix with human influenza virus, dramatic geneti c shifts can follow, creating the potential of a new epidemic for humans. The influenza virus continually evolves by antigenic shift and drift. Early studies in this area by Robert Webster and Graeme Laver established the importance of monitoring influenza strains in order to predict future epidemics. Antigenic shifts are major changes in the structure of the influenza virus that determines its effect on immune responses. Of the viral proteins, the hemagglutinin (H), a major glycoprotein of the virus, plays a central role in infection, because breakdown of hemagglutinin into two smaller units is required for virus infectivity. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003). Shifts in the composition of the hemagglutinin (H) or neuraminidase (N), another glycoprotein, of influenza virus were observed in the 1933, 1957, 1968, and 1977 epidemics: 1933: H1N1 1957: H2N2 (Asian flu) 1968: H3N2 (Hong Kong flu) 1977: reappearance of H1N1, called the Russian flu The reappearance in 1977 of the Russian flu, a virus first isolated in 1933, raises the uneasy possibility that a return of the 1918-19 influenza epidemics with its devastation of human life is possible and perhaps likely. In March of 1997, part of influenza virus nucleic acid was isolated from a formalin-fixed lung tissue sample of a twenty-one-year-old Army private that died during the 1918-19 Spanish influenza pandemic. Since the first influenza viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, characterization of the 1918-19 strain relied on molecular definition of the viruss RNA. Chemical evidence indicated a novel H1N1 sequence of a viral strain that differed from all other subsequently characterized influenza strains and that the 1918 HA human sequence correlated best with swine influenza strains. Once the entire sequence is on hand, a virulent marker for the influenza virus associated with killing over 675,000 Americans from 1918 to 1919 may be uncovered and a vaccine planned that might abort the return of this virus form of influenza.   When such antigenic shifts occur, the appearance of disease is predictable. Therefore, surveillance centers have been established all over the world where isolates of influenza are obtained and studied for alterations, primarily in the hemagglutinin. According to the evidence from these centers, isolates identified in late spring are excellent indicators of potential epidemics in the following winter. Both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs, and genetic reassortants or combinations between them can be demonstrated experimentally. A likely scenario for such an antigenic shift in nature occurs when the prevailing human strain of influenza A virus and an avian influenza virus concurrently infect a pig, which serves as a mixing vessel. Reassortants containing genes derived mainly from the human virus but with a hemagglutinin and polymerase gene from the avian source are able to infect humans and initiate a new pandemic. In rural Southeast Asia, the most densely populated area of the world; hundreds of millions of people live and work in close contact with domesticated pigs and ducks. This is the likely reason for influenza pandemics in China. Epidemics other than the 1918-19 catastrophes have generally killed 50,000 or fewer individuals, although within a year over one million people had been infected with these new strains. Conclusion Three major hypotheses have been put forth to explain antigenic shifts. First, as described above, a new virus can come from a reassortant in which an avian influenza virus gene substitutes for one of the human influenza virus genes. The genome of human influenza group A contains eight RNA segments, and current wisdom is that the circulating influenza hemagglutinin in humans has been replaced with an avian hemagglutinin. A second explanation for antigenic shifts that yield new epidemic viruses is that strains from other mammals or birds become infectious for humans. Some believe that this is the cause of the Spanish influenza virus epidemic in 1918-19, with the transmission of swine influenza virus to humans. A third possibility is that newly emerging viruses have actually remained hidden and unchanged somewhere but suddenly come forth to cause an epidemic, as the Russian H1N1 virus once did. H1N1 first was isolated in 1933, then disappeared when replaced by the Asian H2N2 in 1957. H owever, twenty years later the virus reappeared in a strain isolated in northern China and subsequently spread to the rest of the world. This virus was identical in all its genes to one that caused human influenza epidemics in the 1950s. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007) Where the virus was for twenty years is not known. Could it have been inactivated in a frozen state, preserved in an animal reservoir, or obscured in some other way? If this is so, will the Spanish influenza virus also return, and what will be the consequences for the human population? In addition to antigenic shift, which signifies major changes in existing viruses, antigenic drift permits slight alterations in viral structure. These follow pinpoint changes (mutations) in amino acids in various antigen domains that relate to immune pressure, leading to selection. For example, the hemagglutinin molecule gradually changes while undergoing antigenic drift. Such mutations allow the virus to escape from attack by antibodies generated during a previous bout of infection. Because these antibodies would ordinarily protect the host by removing the virus, this escape permits the related infection to remain in the population. With these difficulties of antigenic shift and, drift and animal reservoirs, it is not surprising that making an influenza vaccine as effective as those for smallpox, pohovirus, yellow fever, or measles is difficult to achieve. Another complication is that immunity to influenza virus is incomplete; that is, even in the presence of an immune response, influenza can still occur. Nevertheless, the challenge of developing vaccines based on surveillance studies has been met. A chemically treated, formalin-inactivated virus has been formulated in a vaccine that is 30 to 70 percent effective in increasing resistance to influenza virus. The vaccine decreases the frequency of influenza attacks or, at least, the severity of disease in most recipients, although protection is not absolute. In addition, the secondary bacterial infections that may accompany influenza are today treatable with potent antibacterial drugs previously unavailable. Nonetheless, of the plagues that visit humans, influenza is among those that require constant surveillance, because we can be certain that some form of influenza will continue to return. References: CDC. Spread of Avian Influenza Viruses among Birds; Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 68, 2006.www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm Claas, E. C. J., A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. van Beek, J. C. De Jong, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, D. A. Senne, S. Krauss, K. F. Shortridge, and R. G. Webster. 1998. Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Lancet 351:472–477. Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI. H5N1 infection of the respiratory tract and beyond: a molecular pathology study; Lancet Sep 29; 370(9593):1106-8, 2007 Pascal James Imperato. The Growing Challenge of Avian Influenza; Journal of Community Health, Vol. 30, 2005. www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Peiris, M., K. Y. Yuen, C. W. Leung, K. H. Chan, P. L. S. Ip, R. W. M. Lai, W. K. Orr, and K. F. Shortridge. 1999. Human infection with influenza H9N2. Lancet 354:916–917. Reina J. Factors affecting the virulence and pathogenicity of avian and human viral strains (influenza virus type A)] Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin; 20(7):346-53 (ISSN: 0213-005X) Hospital Universitario Son Dureta, Palma de Mallorca, Espaà ±a, 2002 direct.bl.uk/research/48/44/RN119578176.html Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA. Update on molecular epidemiology of H1, H5, and H7 influenza virus infections in poultry in North America; Avian Dis. 2003; 47(3 Suppl): 888-97 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez Subbarao, K., A. Klimov, J. Katz, H. Renery, W. Lim, H. Hall, M. Perdue, D. Swayne, C. Bender, J. Huang, M. Hemphill, T. Rowe, M. Shaw, X. Xu, K. Fukuda, and N. Cox. 1998. Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with a fatal respiratory illness. Science 279:393–396. Uiprasertkul M. Apoptosis and Pathogenesis of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus in Humans Emerg Infect Dis; 13(5):708-12 (ISSN: 1080-6040) Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.2007 www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm

Reactions and Reasons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reactions and Reasons - Essay Example This piece is quite impressive due to the number of feelings and associations it triggers by its sounding and instrumentation. It is visibly divided into 3 sections, which structure perceptions regarding music. The first and the third parts dwell on the same idea; however, they represent it differently. In this way these two sections are not perceived as identical. The second section of the piece is aimed at opposing the fist and the last sections. A number of binary oppositions characterize the differences between the second and two other sections of the piece. All of them create unforgettable atmosphere of the piece and help to reveal the meaning each part displays. From the very beginning the piece engages listeners by its full and brings sounding. This piece is composed for the orchestra; the music has rich texture and polyphony, which is visible from the first chords. The first impression of the music is that the part 0:00-0:51 has slight oriental tints in its sounding, as they have elements of pentatonic scale in string arpeggios. Such a confident beginning (forte, allegro), reminds of an overture – an introduction to opera or ballet. High contrasts in pitch, switches from major to minor element in music and rich instrumentation associates this piece with parade or celebration where many people are involved. It contains a controversy; reiteration of major arpeggios in minor in this part creates ambiguous and tensed feelings as music is unstable and highly changeable.

Managing Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Diversity - Essay Example Sources have indicated that the practices of inequality began in the 21st century in the UK. Afterwards, they spread to other countries around the globe and have become an enormous challenge (Dickens 2007, p. 470). The literature further indicates that no country possesses equal opportunities for both genders in the work place. According to Acker, the term inequality refers to disparities in the way the powerful in a working organization exercise their authority (Acker 2006, p. 445). For example, they may make decisions, offer promotions, and provide job security in favor of some individuals. It is thus evident that such inequalities have resulted to discrimination and dissatisfaction in the workplace. Therefore, both the developing as well as the developed states has realized the necessity of managing the diversity. However, despite the support of the above by the majority, some have argued that it does not offer anything new compared with the traditional â€Å"equal opportunitiesà ¢â‚¬  (EO) policies (Dickens 2007, p. 475). There are many dimensions upon which one can address the issue of diversity that has become highly prevalent in the workplace. Sources have revealed the existence of workers from dissimilar cultures, religions, genders, sexes, and physical abilities. The diversity in the workplace has culminated into discriminations and inequality thus the need to manage it. For a long time, different countries have been championing for equal opportunities in the working environment. In facilitating the process of bringing equality to these states, they have enacted a number of policies, which govern all activities carried out in the workplace. Among the enacted policies was the EO policy, which aimed to, provide equal access to job opportunities irrespective of the procedure applied in identifying diverse social groups (Sonia 1997, p. 12). The EO policy, developed and used by employers in diverse forms of organizations, focuses on several issues. The pol icy mostly ensures adherence to the equality provisions of different organizations. According to some scholars, such policies endeavor to discourage diverse categories of discriminations present in the workplace. Additionally, the policy provides access to equal opportunities for different categories of social groups. The traditional EO policies addressed numerous varieties of equality. It aimed to create a working environment whereby respect withholds (Sonia 1997, p. 16). In addition to creating an outstanding working environment, the policy aimed to prevent, as well as to curb the escalating cases of discrimination and victimization. The equal opportunity policies also provided disciplinary proceedings for those involved in the discriminatory, as well as the harassment practices. The equal opportunity policy has been in use in places such as the UK, and the US (Sonia 1997, p. 18). Recently, the concept of diversity management heightened; therefore, need to note its difference from EO policy. As opposed to the EO policy that views people as members of different social settings, diversity management views individuals as having different needs, as well as requirements. Dissimilar individuals will interpret the phrase differently, but its most appropriate interpretation is that it integrates many policies, even those addressing the issue of equality (Barak 2010, p. 25). The process of diversity management focuses on altering an organization’s cultural, as well as their working processes. Moreover, sources have revealed that the process of managing diversity in an organization aims at enhancing an organization’s efficiency (Walsh 2007, p. 31). An organization that depicts an escalation in the discrimination and inequality occurrences fails to function effectively.